🟢 Tier 1 — Foundation
Levels 1–3 · Core sentence structures for everyday communication · CEFR A1–A2
📌 Tier 1 serves two audiences: Adult Beginners (Levels 1–3) receive written, analytical exercises. Junior Explorers (Track 7, ages 6–11) use the same grammar content but with visual, creative, and oral activities — the instructor selects the appropriate exercise format based on the student's age and context.
1
The Verb "To Be" — Present Simple (am / is / are)
Levels 1–2 · A1▼The Rule
The verb to be is the most fundamental verb in English. It has three present forms:
am (with I), is (with he/she/it and singular nouns), and are (with you/we/they and plural nouns). Used to describe identity, nationality, occupation, location, and state. Unlike most verbs, it does not use do/does for questions or negatives — it inverts or adds not directly.Structure & Curriculum Examples
Positive
I am a student. / She is from Rwanda. / They are teachers.Negative
I am not tired. / He isn't at home. / We aren't ready.Question
Am I late? / Is she a doctor? / Are they from South Africa?From the curriculum
Costa Rica is a small, beautiful country. / The rules are very simple. / I am Katlego Ayrton.📝 Practice Exercise
Complete each sentence with the correct form of to be:
- Rwanda ________ a landlocked country in Central-East Africa.
- I ________ not from Europe, but I ________ very interested in global affairs.
- The students ________ ready to begin their lesson.
- ________ Costa Rica famous for its rainforests? Yes, it ________.
- We ________ not passive consumers — we ________ critical thinkers.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use (5th ed.), Units 1–3. Cambridge University Press. | CEFR: A1
2
The Verb "To Be" — Past Simple (was / were)
Levels 1–2 · A1▼The Rule
Past tense of to be has two forms:
was (with I/he/she/it) and were (with you/we/they). Describes states, conditions, or locations that existed in the past. Negatives: add not after was/were. Questions: invert subject and verb.Positive
In 1948, Costa Rica was a country determined to invest in nature. / The ancient rice fields were wet and muddy.Negative
The concerns of darker-skinned communities were not listened to by early film manufacturers.Question
Was Rwanda always this clean? / Were they aware of the cartographic bias?📝 Practice Exercise
Fill in was or were:
- In 1948, Costa Rica ________ a country without an army.
- The ancient manuscripts ________ discovered in Chinguetti.
- ________ the Shirley card used as a photography standard? Yes, it ________.
- The indigenous farmers ________ not consulted before the seeds ________ patented.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 11. Cambridge University Press. | CEFR: A1–A2
3
Present Simple — Positive & Negative
Levels 1–2 · A1▼The Rule
The Present Simple describes habits, facts, routines, and general truths. For he/she/it, add
-s or -es. Negatives use don't / doesn't + base verb. The verb never changes after doesn't.Farmers save seeds every harvest season. / Rwanda bans non-biodegradable plastic. / The map does not show the real size of Africa.
📝 Practice
Write the correct form: (1) The Mercator map ________ (distort) continent sizes. (2) Farmers ________ (not/own) the seeds they plant. (3) Every citizen ________ (participate) in Umuganda once a month. (4) The drone ________ (fly) over mountains to deliver medicine.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 5–6. | CEFR: A1
4
Present Simple — Questions & Short Answers
Levels 1–2 · A1▼Questions use
do or does before the subject, followed by the base verb. Use does with he/she/it. The main verb always stays in base form after does. ❌ Does she teaches? ✅ Does she teach?Does Rwanda have a drone system? Yes, it does. / Why do maps distort Africa? / Where does Nollywood distribute its films?
📝 Practice
Form questions: (1) ________ (Rwanda/ban) single-use plastics? Yes, ________. (2) ________ (the Mercator map/show) accurate sizes? No, ________. (3) Where ________ (honeybees/communicate) their directions?
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 6. | CEFR: A1
5
Present Continuous — What is happening now?
Levels 1–2 · A1▼Describes actions happening right now or temporary situations. Structure:
am/is/are + verb-ing. Also used for confirmed future arrangements.Rwanda is building new drone delivery routes. / More countries are beginning to recognise African innovation. / The drone is delivering medicine to the hospital tomorrow.
📝 Practice
Complete: (1) Rwanda ________ (build) one of the world's most advanced drone networks. (2) Many students ________ (not/pay) attention to bias hidden in world maps. (3) ________ (the community/participate) in Umuganda this Saturday?
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 1–4. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 449–451. | CEFR: A1–A2
6
Present Simple vs. Present Continuous
Level 2 · A2▼Simple = permanent facts, habits, general truths. Continuous = temporary actions happening now. Key test: always true → Simple. Happening at this specific moment → Continuous. Stative verbs (know, believe, understand, prefer, love, hate) are almost never used in continuous form. ❌ I am understanding the lesson. ✅ I understand the lesson.
Kigali is one of the cleanest cities in the world. (permanent fact) / Rwanda is building new drone routes this year. (temporary)
📝 Practice
Choose and justify: (1) Farmers in Bolivia ________ (fight) for their seed rights every year. (2) Right now, the drone ________ (fly) over the mountain. (3) I ________ (believe) all maps contain political bias. (4) This week, the government ________ (discuss) a new environmental policy.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 8. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 449–451. | CEFR: A2
7
Past Simple — Regular Verbs (-ed endings)
Levels 1–2 · A1▼Regular verbs add
-ed. Spelling rules: verbs ending in -e add only -d; consonant-vowel-consonant doubles the final consonant (ban→banned). Negatives: didn't + base verb. Questions: Did + subject + base verb.Rwanda banned plastic bags in 2008. / The corporation did not consult local farmers. / Did the government invest in broadband? Yes, it did.
📝 Practice
Write the past simple form and use in a sentence: (1) ban → ________ (2) use → ________ (3) patent → ________ (4) The spice trade ________ (reshape) the world's borders for centuries.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 11–12. | CEFR: A1–A2
8
Past Simple — Irregular Verbs
Levels 1–2 · A2▼Irregular verbs change spelling entirely and must be memorised. Key forms: go→went, come→came, have→had, give→gave, take→took, make→made, find→found, know→knew, build→built, bring→brought, say→said. In negatives and questions, use
did + BASE FORM — never the irregular past form. ❌ Did she went? ✅ Did she go?European colonists took spices by force. / Nigerian filmmakers found a way around Hollywood. / South Korea built one of the world's first esports associations.
📝 Practice
Write the correct irregular past form: (1) Nigerian filmmakers ________ (find) a creative way around expensive studios. (2) The Dutch ________ (take) violent control of the Banda Islands. (3) I ________ (not/know) about the Shirley card until I studied photography history.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 11 & Appendix 1. | CEFR: A1–A2
9
Past Simple — Questions & Negatives
Level 2 · A2▼The auxiliary
did carries the past tense in questions and negatives — so the main verb always returns to its base form for both regular and irregular verbs. Did is used for all subjects.Did the Dutch control the global spice trade? / When did Rwanda ban plastic bags? / The film industry did not represent African stories honestly.
📝 Practice
Form questions and negatives: (1) The Columbian Exchange / begin / in 1492 → ________? (2) Film corporations / calibrate / for darker skin tones → ________. (3) Correct the error: Did Nollywood grew without Western funding? → ________
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 12. | CEFR: A2
10
Past Continuous — What was happening?
Level 2 · A2▼Describes an action in progress at a specific past moment, or a background action interrupted by a Past Simple event. Structure:
was/were + verb-ing. Used with when or while: Past Continuous sets the scene; Past Simple interrupts it.Farmers were cultivating these seeds for centuries when corporations arrived. / While Hollywood was producing big-budget films, Nollywood was creating its own revolution.
📝 Practice
Complete with Past Continuous or Past Simple: (1) Arab merchants ________ (trade) spices peacefully for centuries when European powers ________ (arrive). (2) While Kodak ________ (calibrate) film for one skin tone, darker communities ________ (suffer) the consequences.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 14. | CEFR: A2
11
Articles — A vs. An (Indefinite Articles)
Level 1 · A1▼Use
a before consonant sounds. Use an before vowel sounds. The rule depends on sound, not spelling: a university (sounds like "you") / an hour (silent "h"). Use when introducing a noun for the first time or referring to one of many.A drone delivers medicine. / It was an important discovery. / He is a European scholar. / She is an ESL instructor.
📝 Practice
Insert a or an: (1) __ unbiased map (2) __ historical document (3) __ honest response (4) __ university degree (5) __ indigenous community (6) __ one-sided argument
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 69. | CEFR: A1
12
Articles — The (Definite Article)
Levels 1–2 · A2▼Use
the when both speaker and listener know which specific thing is being referred to — because it has been mentioned, there is only one, or it is unique. Use with superlatives, rivers/oceans/mountain ranges, and unique institutions. Do not use the with general plurals or abstract concepts used generally.The Mercator map distorts Africa's size. / The Amazon River is in South America. / Maps can show distortions. (general — no article)
📝 Practice
Insert the where necessary or leave blank: (1) __ fairness is important in __ society. (2) __ Sahara Desert contains __ ancient libraries. (3) __ spice trade changed __ world's borders.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 70–78. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 61–72. | CEFR: A2
13
Articles — Zero Article (When to use nothing)
Level 2–3 · A2▼Zero article with: plural countable nouns in a general sense (Farmers save seeds), uncountable nouns generally (Rice is a staple), most proper nouns — people, cities, countries, languages (Africa, Bolivia, English), and meals/sports/subjects generally (She studies philosophy). Exception: country names with "republic/kingdom/states" take the (the United States, the DRC).
__ Nollywood changed __ African cinema. / __ Farmers in __ Bolivia fight for __ seed sovereignty. / __ Philosophy teaches us to examine __ assumptions.
📝 Practice
Insert a/an/the or –: (1) __ Ubuntu is __ Southern African philosophy. (2) __ farmers need __ water to grow __ rice. (3) __ Kyrgyzstan is in __ Central Asia. (4) She speaks __ English and __ French fluently.
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Section 65. | Murphy, R. (2019). Units 72–78. | CEFR: A2–B1
14
Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns
Levels 1–2 · A1▼Countable nouns can be singular or plural and used with a/an: a seed / seeds. Uncountable nouns have no plural and cannot use a/an: rice, water, information, knowledge, justice, data. Use much/a lot of with uncountable; many/few with countable.
Countable: a seed / many countries / an algorithm / Uncountable: much rice / some water / a lot of information / little justice
📝 Practice
Countable (C) or Uncountable (U)? Then use in a sentence: (1) knowledge (2) drone (3) sovereignty (4) rice (5) manuscript (6) information (7) community (8) bias
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 67–68. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 171–175. | CEFR: A1–A2
15
Plural Nouns — Regular and Irregular Forms
Level 1 · A1▼Most nouns add
-s. Nouns ending in -s/-sh/-ch/-x/-z add -es. Consonant + -y → -ies. Many -f/-fe endings → -ves. Key irregular forms: child→children, person→people, man→men, woman→women, datum→data, criterion→criteria, analysis→analyses, phenomenon→phenomena.seed→seeds / country→countries / leaf→leaves / datum→data / phenomenon→phenomena
📝 Practice
Write the plural: (1) community (2) analysis (3) criterion (4) leaf (5) child (6) phenomenon (7) country (8) woman. Also: data is already plural — what is the singular?
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 430–438. | CEFR: A1
16
Pronouns — Subject, Object, and Possessive
Level 1 · A1▼Subject pronouns (actor): I, you, he, she, it, we, they. Object pronouns (receiver): me, you, him, her, it, us, them. Possessive adjectives (before noun): my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Possessive pronouns (replace noun): mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. Note: the singular gender-neutral pronoun they/them/their is widely accepted in standard English with historical precedent dating to the 14th century (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p.493).
📝 Practice
Replace underlined words with correct pronouns: (1) Rwanda built Rwanda's drone network without foreign help. (2) The philosopher gave the philosopher's lecture to the students. (3) The seed belongs to the farmer — the seed is the farmer's.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 57–62. | Huddleston & Pullum (2002). p.493. | CEFR: A1
17
Prepositions of Place
Level 1 · A1▼in — inside a space or area: in Africa, in the city. on — on a surface: on the map, on the roof. at — a specific point: at the hospital, at the border. Additional: next to / beside / near / opposite / behind / in front of / between / among.Rwanda is in Central-East Africa. / Kyrgyzstan is between China and Kazakhstan. / The drone lands at the hospital.
📝 Practice
Fill in: (1) Bolivia is __ the heart of South America. (2) The libraries are __ Chinguetti, __ Mauritania. (3) The drone delivers medicine __ the remote hospital __ the mountains.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 108–110. | CEFR: A1
18
Prepositions of Time
Levels 1–2 · A1▼in — months, years, centuries, seasons: in 2008, in the 15th century, in the morning. on — specific days and dates: on Saturday, on Umuganda day. at — specific times: at 9am, at night, at noon. Additional: before / after / during / since / for / by / until / from...to.In 2008, Rwanda banned plastic bags. / Citizens participate in Umuganda on the last Saturday of every month. / The spice trade continued for centuries.
📝 Practice
Fill in in/on/at/for/since/during: (1) __ 1948, Costa Rica abolished its military. (2) Esports has grown __ the last two decades. (3) __ 2000, South Korea founded KeSPA. (4) __ night, the drones return to base.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 108–110. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 444–448. | CEFR: A1–A2
19
Adjectives — Order & Placement (OSASCOMP)
Level 2 · A2▼Multiple adjectives before a noun follow the order: Opinion → Size → Age → Shape → Colour → Origin → Material → Purpose + Noun. Violating this order sounds unnatural to native speakers. Predicative adjectives (after a linking verb like be/seem) have no ordering constraint.
✅ a beautiful small green tropical rainforest / ❌ a green beautiful tropical small rainforest
📝 Practice
Put adjectives in the correct order: (1) a (Mauritanian / ancient / beautiful) manuscript → ________ (2) a (small / East African / green / landlocked) country → ________ (3) Rewrite "a leather old Rwandan traditional basket" correctly.
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 5–6. | Quirk et al. (1985). §7.50. | CEFR: A2
20
Comparative Adjectives
Level 2 · A2▼Short adjectives (one syllable): add
-er + than. Consonant-vowel-consonant: double final consonant (big→bigger). Long adjectives: use more + adjective + than. Irregulars: good→better, bad→worse, far→further, little→less, much/many→more.Africa is much larger than Greenland on a real map. / The drone system is more efficient than road transport. / The situation for farmers is getting worse.
📝 Practice
Write the comparative: (1) Africa is ________ (large) than it appears on the Mercator. (2) A community food system is ________ (sustainable) than a corporate monopoly. (3) The situation is ________ (bad) now than fifty years ago.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 89–90. | CEFR: A2
21
Superlative Adjectives
Level 2–3 · A2▼Short adjectives:
the + -est. Long adjectives: the most + adjective. Irregulars: good→the best, bad→the worst, far→the furthest, little→the least, many→the most. Superlatives almost always followed by a prepositional phrase: the largest in the world.Bolivia holds the world's largest reserves of lithium. / Kigali is one of the cleanest cities on Earth. / Stoicism is one of the most practical ancient philosophies.
📝 Practice
Write the superlative: (1) Bolivia has ________ (large) lithium reserves in the world. (2) The Mercator distortion is one of ________ (significant) cartographic biases in history. (3) Ubuntu is one of ________ (important) African philosophies for global ethics.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 89–91. | CEFR: A2
22
Adverbs of Frequency
Levels 1–2 · A1▼Scale: always (100%) → usually → often → sometimes → rarely → never (0%). Placement: before the main verb, after the verb to be, after modals. Frequency expressions (once a week, every day) go at the beginning or end of the sentence.
Bees always follow the waggle dance. / Western media often ignores African innovation. / Citizens participate in Umuganda once a month.
📝 Practice
Place the adverb correctly: (1) Western maps show (rarely) the true size of Africa. (2) The drone delivers (always) medicine within twenty minutes. (3) Students are (sometimes) unaware of bias hidden in their textbooks.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 100. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 16–21. | CEFR: A1–A2
23
Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
Levels 1–2 · A1▼Seven coordinating conjunctions: For (reason), And (addition), Nor (negative addition), But (contrast), Or (alternative), Yet (contrast), So (result). When joining two complete sentences, place a comma before the conjunction.
Rwanda banned plastic bags, and it became one of the cleanest cities. / The map distorts Africa's size, so many students develop a false perception. / Stoicism is ancient, yet deeply relevant today.
📝 Practice
Join with the correct conjunction: (1) Rwanda banned plastic. Kigali became one of the world's cleanest cities. (and/so?) (2) The constitution looks progressive. Citizens experience systemic gaps daily. (but/yet?) (3) Nollywood lacked big budgets. It built the second-largest film industry. (yet/but?)
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 135–139. | CEFR: A1–A2
24
Subordinating Conjunctions
Level 2–3 · A2▼Introduce a dependent clause that cannot stand alone. Reason: because, since, as. Contrast: although, even though, while. Time: when, while, until, before, after. Condition: if, unless. When the subordinate clause comes first, a comma separates it from the main clause.
Because the film was calibrated for light skin, darker tones appeared as shadows. / Although the constitution promises rights, many citizens struggle daily.
📝 Practice
Join with the correct subordinating conjunction: (1) The Mercator map was created for navigation. It distorts sizes. (because/although?) (2) Farmers cannot save seeds. They buy corporate ones. (until/if?) (3) __ Nollywood had no big budgets, it built a global film industry. (although?)
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 135–153. | Murphy, R. (2019). Units 37–40. | CEFR: A2–B1
25
Modal Verbs of Ability — Can / Cannot / Could
Level 1–2 · A1▼Modal verbs never change form and always take a base verb.
Can = present ability or possibility. Cannot/can't = inability or impossibility. Could = past ability or polite requests. Questions: invert modal and subject — no do/does needed.The drone can deliver medicine in twenty minutes. / A Stoic cannot control the weather, only their reaction. / Before the internet, filmmakers could not distribute films digitally.
📝 Practice
Fill in can/cannot/could/couldn't: (1) Before 2008, Rwanda ________ legally ban plastic without a formal law. (2) The drone ________ fly over mountains that trucks ________ reach. (3) We ________ control other people's actions, but we ________ control our own reactions.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 26–27. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 113–116. | CEFR: A1
26
Modal Verbs of Advice — Should / Shouldn't
Levels 1–2 · A2▼Should expresses advice, recommendation, or an expectation of what is right. Weaker than must — suggests a good idea rather than absolute requirement. Can also express a logical expectation: The drone should arrive soon. Always followed by the base verb.Students should always verify information before accepting it. / You shouldn't share your real name in an online game chat. / Governments should implement laws to protect indigenous seed sovereignty.
📝 Practice
Write advice: (1) A student reads only Western news. → They ________ also read African media. (2) A child shares their home address in an online game. → They ________. (3) A learner believes everything in a podcast. → They ________ verify claims independently.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 31. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 527–533. | CEFR: A2
27
Modal Verbs of Obligation — Must / Have to / Need to
Level 2–3 · A2▼Must = strong internal obligation felt by the speaker. Have to = external obligation — a rule imposed from outside. Crucial contrast: mustn't = forbidden (strong prohibition). Don't have to = not necessary (no obligation). This is one of the most commonly confused distinctions in English.Critical thinkers must question what they read. (internal) / In Kabaddi, players have to return to their half before breathing. (external rule) / You mustn't share your password. (forbidden) / You don't have to watch every podcast. (not compulsory)
📝 Practice
Choose must/have to/mustn't/don't have to: (1) All citizens ________ participate in Umuganda — it is a national obligation. (2) You ________ share your personal information online — it is dangerous. (3) You ________ watch every recommended podcast — they are optional.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 29–30. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 357–361. | CEFR: A2–B1
28
Imperative Verbs — Instructions & Commands
Level 1 · A1▼The imperative uses the base form of the verb with no subject — the subject (you) is implied. Used for instructions, commands, advice, requests, warnings. Negative:
Do not / Don't + base verb. Adding please makes it more polite.Mix numbers, symbols, and letters to create a strong password. / Do not share your personal data with unknown websites. / Always verify information before sharing it.
📝 Practice
Rewrite as imperatives: (1) You need to verify all information independently. → ________ (2) You should not believe everything you hear in a podcast. → ________ (3) It is important to mix different news sources. → ________
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 263–266. | CEFR: A1
29
There is / There are — Describing Existence
Level 1 · A1▼Use
There is (singular/uncountable) or There are (plural) to state that something exists. The verb agrees with the noun that follows. Past: there was / there were. Future: there will be. In formal writing, always use there are for plurals — never there's.There is a significant distortion in the Mercator map. / There are thousands of ancient manuscripts in Chinguetti. / There was no drone network in Rwanda before 2016.
📝 Practice
Fill in: (1) ________ a major distortion in how Africa is represented on school maps. (2) ________ thousands of seed varieties disappearing due to corporate monopolies. (3) Before 2008, ________ no law in Rwanda banning plastic bags.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 35–36. | CEFR: A1
30
Question Words — Who / What / Where / When / Why / How
Level 1 · A1▼Wh- question words begin information questions.
Who (people), What (things), Where (place), When (time), Why (reason), How (manner/degree). Additional: Which (choice), Whose (possession), How much/many/long/often/far. When the Wh- word is the subject, no auxiliary is needed: Who built the drone network? (not: Who did build?)Who built the Rwandan drone network? (subject — no auxiliary) / What does the waggle dance communicate? / Why do maps distort Africa? / How many films does Nollywood produce per year?
📝 Practice
Write the correct Wh- question: (1) ________? → Rwanda is in Central-East Africa. (2) ________? → The Shirley card was used to calibrate film. (3) ________? → Stoics focus on internal reactions because external events are beyond their control. (4) ________? → Epictetus developed the Dichotomy of Control.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 44–46. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 603–613. | CEFR: A1
🔵 Tier 2 — Building
Levels 4–7 · Developing fluency and structural complexity · CEFR B1–B2
1
Present Perfect — Have / Has + Past Participle
Levels 4–5 · B1▼The Present Perfect connects the past to the present. Use it for: (1) actions at an unspecified past time with present relevance, (2) life experiences, (3) actions that started in the past and continue now — with for/since, (4) recent actions with present results. Never use a specific past time expression with Present Perfect.
Rwanda has built the world's first national drone delivery network. / She has taught English for five years. / ❌ Rwanda has banned plastic bags in 2008. ✅ Rwanda banned plastic bags in 2008.
📝 Practice
Present Perfect or Past Simple? (1) Nollywood ________ (produce) over 2,000 films per year since the early 1990s. (2) In 2010, Bolivia ________ (pass) the Law of the Rights of Mother Earth. (3) The drone ________ (just/arrive) at the hospital with the medicine. (4) ________ you ever ________ (visit) Rwanda?
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 15–20. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 456–468. | CEFR: B1
2
Present Perfect vs. Past Simple
Levels 4–5 · B1▼Past Simple = completed action at a definite, specific time in the past. Present Perfect = connection to the present (unspecified time, continuing situation, or recent result). Signal words for Past Simple: yesterday, in 2008, last year, ago. Signal words for Present Perfect: just, already, yet, ever, never, recently, since, for, so far.
PS: The Columbian Exchange began in 1492. (specific year) / PP: The global food system has changed dramatically since 1492. (continuing relevance) / PP: Have you ever visited Rwanda? (life experience)
📝 Practice
Choose and justify: (1) Stoicism ________ (originate) in Athens over 2,000 years ago. (2) The drone ________ (just/arrive) at the hospital. (3) When ________ Bolivia ________ (pass) the Law of Mother Earth? (4) South Korea ________ (become) a leading esports nation since the 1990s.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 12–20. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 456–468. | CEFR: B1
3
Past Perfect — Had + Past Participle
Levels 5–6 · B1▼The Past Perfect describes an action completed before another past action. Structure:
had + past participle (same for all subjects). Common connectors: before, after, when, by the time, already, just, never...until. Essential in narrative writing to make the sequence of past events clear.By the time European colonists arrived, indigenous farmers had cultivated these seed varieties for centuries. / Arab merchants had traded spices peacefully before European monopolies disrupted the system.
📝 Practice
Complete using Past Perfect: (1) By the time Western media noticed Nollywood, Nigerian filmmakers ________ (already/build) a global industry. (2) South Korea ________ (invest) in broadband before most nations ________ (recognise) esports as legitimate. (3) Farmers ________ (save) seeds for generations before corporations ________ (begin) patenting them.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 15. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 421–425. | CEFR: B1–B2
4
Future Simple — Will & Won't
Levels 4–5 · B1▼Use
will for: spontaneous decisions made at the moment of speaking, predictions based on opinion or belief, promises and offers, facts about the future. Negative: will not / won't. Always followed by the base verb. Same for all subjects.If corporations continue patenting seeds, farmers will lose control of their crops. / "Nobody has explained sportswashing yet." — "I 'll explain it now." (spontaneous decision)
📝 Practice
Complete with will/won't: (1) If corporations continue patenting seeds, farmers ________ (lose) control. (2) Technology ________ (not/solve) systemic inequality on its own. (3) If we learn to think critically, we ________ (become) more resistant to manipulation.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 19–20. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 581–597. | CEFR: A2–B1
5
Future with Going To — Plans and Intentions
Levels 4–5 · B1▼Use
be going to for: plans and intentions already decided before the moment of speaking, predictions based on present evidence. Key contrast with will: going to implies prior intention or visible evidence; will implies spontaneous decision or belief-based prediction.The government is going to invest in a new drone delivery route next year. (prior plan) / Look at the corporate monopoly growing — seed diversity is going to disappear if nothing changes. (present evidence)
📝 Practice
Will or Going to? Choose and justify: (1) The farmer has already decided — she ________ (plant) heritage seeds this season. (2) "Nobody has explained Umuganda yet." — "I ________ (explain) it now." (3) Look at the evidence — seed diversity ________ (disappear) if nothing changes.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 19–20. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 222–224. | CEFR: A2–B1
6
Future Continuous — What will be happening?
Levels 5–6 · B2▼Describes an action in progress at a specific future moment. Structure:
will be + verb-ing. Also used for polite questions about someone's plans. Contrasts with Future Simple: Future Continuous emphasises the ongoing nature of the action at a particular future time.By 2030, more nations will be using drone delivery for essential medicines. / At midnight, the algorithm will still be analysing our browsing data. / Will you be attending the lecture tomorrow? (polite enquiry)
📝 Practice
Write Future Continuous sentences: (1) At midnight, the algorithm ________ (still/analyse) our data. (2) By 2040, governments ________ (debate) the legal rights of rivers. (3) While we ________ (sleep), tech companies ________ (harvest) our digital footprints.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 21. | Swan, M. (2016). Section 588. | CEFR: B1–B2
7
First Conditional — Real and Likely Situations
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Structure:
If + Present Simple, will + base verb. Describes real, possible, or likely future situations. Never use will in the if clause. Other modals can replace will: might, may, can, should.If corporations continue patenting seeds, farmers will lose control of their food supply. / If countries adopt the Peters projection, students will develop a more accurate global perspective. / If the government does not act, biodiversity may collapse within decades.
📝 Practice
Complete using the First Conditional: (1) If you do not protect your digital privacy, corporations ________ (continue) to harvest your data. (2) If seed sovereignty ________ (be) protected by law, farmers ________ (not/be forced) to buy corporate seeds annually. (3) If more African voices ________ (enter) global cinema, storytelling ________ (become) richer.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 37. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 248–253. | CEFR: B1
8
Second Conditional — Unreal and Hypothetical
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Structure:
If + Past Simple, would + base verb. Describes imaginary or contrary-to-present-reality situations. Use were (not was) for all subjects in formal writing. Despite the past tense in the if clause, the meaning is present or future.If all schools switched to the Peters projection, students would develop a more accurate perspective. / If a river had legal rights, corporations could not pollute it without legal consequences.
📝 Practice
Complete using the Second Conditional: (1) If every company ________ (adopt) an Ubuntu management style, workplaces ________ (become) more collaborative. (2) If I ________ (be) appointed legal guardian of a local river, I ________ (immediately/ban) industrial waste dumping. (3) What ________ you ________ (do) if you ________ (discover) your data had been sold?
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 38. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 248–253. | CEFR: B1–B2
9
Passive Voice — Present Simple
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Structure:
am/is/are + past participle. Shifts focus from the doer to the action or receiver. Use when the agent is unknown, unimportant, or deliberately omitted. Critical literacy note: analysing whether a headline uses active or passive voice reveals whose interests the reporting serves.Active: Corporations patent indigenous seed varieties. → Passive: Indigenous seed varieties are patented by corporations. / The data is harvested without the user's knowledge. (agent deliberately vague)
📝 Practice
Change from active to passive, then discuss what is gained or lost by omitting the agent: (1) Corporations patent thousands of seed varieties every year. (2) The algorithm harvests your behavioural data without consent. (3) Western media often ignores African technological innovations.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 41–42. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 411–425. | CEFR: B1
10
Passive Voice — Past Simple
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Structure:
was/were + past participle. Use was for singular, were for plural. Essential in historical reporting and academic writing. Media analysis: "Civilians were killed" (passive — no agent named) vs. "Government forces killed civilians" (active — agent named). The grammatical choice is never accidental.Active: Kodak calibrated the film for white skin. → Passive: The film was calibrated for white skin (by Kodak). / Indigenous farming systems were destroyed by European colonial expansion.
📝 Practice
Rewrite in Past Simple Passive AND discuss what is gained or lost by omitting the agent: (1) Dutch colonists slaughtered the indigenous population of the Banda Islands for nutmeg. (2) Film corporations calibrated early colour film for light skin tones. (3) European empires extracted Bolivia's mineral wealth for centuries.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 41–42. | CEFR: B1–B2
11
Passive Voice — Perfect Tenses
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Present Perfect Passive:
has/have been + past participle. Past Perfect Passive: had been + past participle. Future Passive: will be + past participle. These structures allow writers to maintain a formal register while focusing on the action or result rather than the agent.Thousands of heritage seed varieties have been lost due to corporate monocultures. / The indigenous population had been displaced before any legal protections were established. / Without intervention, more languages will be lost within the next century.
📝 Practice
Rewrite in the correct passive form: (1) Corporations have patented over 1,000 seed varieties in the last decade. (Present Perfect Passive) (2) European powers had extracted Bolivia's silver before the republic was formed. (Past Perfect Passive) (3) If nothing changes, corporations will patent even more indigenous genetic material. (Future Passive)
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 41–42. | Hewings, M. (2013). Advanced Grammar in Use, Units 29–32. Cambridge University Press. | CEFR: B2
12
Defining Relative Clauses (who / which / that / where / whose)
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Identifies which person or thing is being discussed. Essential to meaning — remove it and the sentence loses specificity. No commas. Pronouns: who/that for people, which/that for things, where for places, when for times, whose for possession. Pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of the clause.
Epictetus was a philosopher who developed the Dichotomy of Control. / Chinguetti is a desert city where thousands of ancient manuscripts are preserved. / Nollywood is an industry whose growth surprised the global film market.
📝 Practice
Join sentences using defining relative clauses: (1) Descartes was a philosopher. He said "I think, therefore I am." (2) Ubuntu is a Southern African philosophy. It prioritises community over the individual. (3) Bolivia is a landlocked nation. Its lithium reserves are the largest in the world.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 92–95. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 484–498. | CEFR: B1
13
Non-Defining Relative Clauses (with commas)
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Adds non-essential extra information about an already-identified noun. Separated by commas. Can be removed without changing core meaning. Use who for people, which for things — never that in non-defining clauses.
Bolivia, whose lithium reserves are the largest in the world, faces intense pressure from multinationals. / Nollywood, which is based in Nigeria, is the second-largest film industry in the world by volume. / Desmond Tutu, who championed Ubuntu, played a central role in South Africa's reconciliation.
📝 Practice
Add a non-defining relative clause using commas: (1) Nollywood ________ produces over 2,000 films per year ________ is the second-largest film industry. (2) Rwanda ________ is in Central-East Africa ________ banned plastic bags over a decade before most Western nations. (3) KeSPA ________ was founded in 2000 ________ was the world's first official esports governing body.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 92–95. | Hewings, M. (2013). Units 86–88. | CEFR: B2
14
Reported Speech — Statements
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Verbs backshift one tense: Present Simple→Past Simple, Present Continuous→Past Continuous, Past Simple→Past Perfect, Will→Would, Can→Could, May→Might. Reporting verbs: said (that), told + object (that), explained, claimed, argued. That is optional but common in formal writing.
"The map distorts Africa's size." → She said that the map distorted the size of Africa. / "I will protect the environment." → The president promised that she would protect the environment.
📝 Practice
Convert to reported speech: (1) "Rwanda is one of the cleanest countries in Africa." — The journalist said ________. (2) "We have been fighting for seed sovereignty for decades." — The farmer explained ________. (3) "I can speak four languages fluently." — She told us ________.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 47–51. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 480–483. | CEFR: B1–B2
15
Reported Speech — Questions & Commands
Levels 5–6 · B2▼Reported questions use statement word order (no inversion), no question mark. Yes/No questions use whether/if. Commands:
told/asked + object + (not) to + infinitive. Reporting verb: asked, wanted to know, wondered."Does the Mercator map distort sizes?" → She asked whether the Mercator map distorted sizes. / "Always verify your sources!" → The instructor told us to always verify our sources.
📝 Practice
Convert: (1) "Have you ever heard of Ubuntu philosophy?" — She asked me ________. (2) "Where is Rwanda located?" — The student asked ________. (3) "Do not share your password with anyone." — The expert told us ________.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 47–51. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 480–483. | CEFR: B1–B2
16
Modal Verbs of Possibility — Might / May / Could
Levels 5–6 · B1▼All express possibility — something is possible but not certain. May = slightly higher probability (formal). Might/could = theoretical possibility. Essential hedging tools in academic writing: they allow claims without overstating certainty — a mark of intellectual rigour.
The loss of seed diversity could make the global food system vulnerable. / Governments may implement stricter data protection laws soon. / Esports might eventually be included in the Olympic Games.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using might/may/could to express possibility: (1) I think facial recognition will become more accurate over time. (2) Perhaps Bolivia will become the world's leading electric vehicle battery supplier. (3) It is possible that Nollywood will overtake Hollywood in global market share.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 28–30. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 355–361. | CEFR: B1
17
Modal Verbs of Deduction — Must / Can't / Might
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Must = almost certain positive deduction. Can't/couldn't = almost certain negative deduction. Might/could = possible but uncertain. Past deductions:
must have / can't have / might have + past participle.The corporation must know about the bias — the research is public. / The map can't be showing correct sizes — Africa is 14 times larger than Greenland. / The indigenous communities must have been deeply alarmed when their seeds were first patented.
📝 Practice
Write logical deductions using must/can't/might: (1) The Shirley card was used as the only reference for film calibration for decades. → Corporations ________ have known about the bias. (2) Greenland appears the same size as Africa on the Mercator. → The map ________ be showing correct sizes. (3) The farmer has been saving heritage seeds for forty years. → She ________ have enormous knowledge of agricultural biodiversity.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 28–30. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 357–361. | CEFR: B2
18
Gerunds — Verb + -ing as a Noun
Levels 5–6 · B1▼A gerund is the -ing form of a verb used as a noun — as subject, object, or after prepositions. Verbs followed by gerunds: enjoy, avoid, consider, suggest, finish, keep, practise, admit, deny, risk, involve, imagine. Negative gerund: not + gerund.
Questioning the maps we use is an act of critical thinking. (subject) / Stoicism involves separating events into what you can and cannot control. (object) / Corporations are responsible for destroying indigenous seed biodiversity. (after preposition)
📝 Practice
Fill in the gerund form: (1) ________ (understand) the history of the spice trade helps us appreciate global food culture. (2) The algorithm keeps ________ (track) your behaviour even when you are not actively using the app. (3) Corporations risk ________ (lose) public trust if they continue ________ (harvest) data without consent.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 52–54. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 230–237. | CEFR: B1–B2
19
Infinitives — Verb + to + infinitive
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Verbs followed by infinitive: want, need, hope, plan, decide, agree, refuse, manage, fail, seem, promise, offer, learn. Also expresses purpose: in order to / so as to. With object: tell/ask/want/advise + object + to + verb.
The Bolivian government decided to assert resource sovereignty. / Farmers managed to preserve heritage varieties despite corporate pressure. / Nollywood used cheap cameras in order to maintain creative sovereignty.
📝 Practice
Complete using the correct infinitive form: (1) Bolivia decided ________ (assert) its sovereignty over lithium resources. (2) Corporations refuse ________ (acknowledge) the bias in their facial recognition systems. (3) The filmmaker wanted the audience ________ (question) the narratives they had always accepted.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 52–54. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 274–284. | CEFR: B1
20
Gerunds vs. Infinitives — Key Differences
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Some verbs change meaning completely depending on which form follows. stop + gerund = ended the activity / stop + infinitive = stopped in order to do something. remember + gerund = have a memory of doing it / remember + infinitive = didn't forget the task. try + gerund = experiment / try + infinitive = attempt. Both with no change: begin, start, continue, prefer, like, love, hate.
The corporation stopped using biased datasets. (ended the activity) / The researcher stopped to analyse the data. (stopped something else in order to analyse) / I remember hearing about the Shirley card. (I have a memory) / Remember to download the VPN. (don't forget the task)
📝 Practice
Choose gerund or infinitive and explain the meaning difference: (1) The corporation stopped ________ (use) biased training data. (2) Do you remember ________ (hear) about the Shirley card for the first time? (3) The filmmaker began ________ (document) African stories mainstream media ignored.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 52–55. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 277–284. | CEFR: B2
21
Adverbs of Manner
Levels 4–5 · B1▼Most formed by adding -ly to an adjective. Irregulars: good→well, fast→fast, hard→hard, late→late. Placement: after the main verb or after the object. Warning: hardly ≠ hard — hardly means "scarcely/barely."
The drone efficiently delivers medicine. / Nollywood filmmakers expanded their industry rapidly using digital cameras. / She argued against the Mercator projection persuasively and systematically.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using the correct adverb of manner: (1) The algorithm analyses data in a continuous way. (2) Nollywood filmmakers worked in a resourceful way. (3) Epictetus wrote about freedom in a profound way. (4) She argued against the Mercator projection in a persuasive and systematic way.
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Section 15. | CEFR: B1
22
Adverbs of Degree
Levels 5–6 · B2▼Gradable adjectives take: quite, fairly, rather, somewhat, very, extremely, incredibly, remarkably. Non-gradable (extreme) adjectives take absolutely, completely, utterly, totally — not very. ❌ very unique ✅ completely unique. In academic writing avoid overusing very — use precise vocabulary: highly significant rather than very important.
Rwanda's environmental policies are remarkably progressive. / The bias was deeply embedded in the film industry. (not: very embedded) / The loss of seed biodiversity is absolutely critical. (not: very critical)
📝 Practice
Replace very with a more precise adverb of degree: (1) The Stoic approach is very useful for managing emotions. (2) The distortion of Africa on the Mercator map is very surprising. (3) The corporate seed monopoly is very bad for global food security. (4) Nollywood's growth was very fast and very unexpected.
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 16–22. | Swales & Feak (2012). | CEFR: B1–B2
23
Sequencing Connectors
Levels 4–5 · B1▼Organise information chronologically. Starting: First / To begin with. Following: Then / Next / After that / Subsequently. Simultaneous: Meanwhile / At the same time. Closing: Finally / Lastly / Ultimately. Can begin a sentence (followed by comma) or connect clauses.
First, the drone is loaded with vaccines at the depot. Then, it flies over mountainous terrain. Finally, it lands at the remote hospital within twenty minutes.
📝 Practice
Rewrite the Wayang Kulit process using sequencing connectors: (1) The artist makes a puppet from leather. (2) A bright light is placed behind a screen. (3) The artist moves the puppet between the light and screen. (4) The audience watches the shadows. Connect these four steps using first, then, after that, finally into a cohesive paragraph.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 84. | Swales & Feak (2012). | CEFR: B1
24
Contrast Connectors
Levels 6–7 · B2▼However / Nevertheless / On the other hand — begin a new sentence/clause (followed by comma). Although / Even though / While / Whereas — begin a subordinate clause. Despite / In spite of — followed by a noun or gerund, never a full clause. ❌ Despite the map distorts ✅ Despite the distortion.
The constitution promises equality; however, many citizens do not experience it daily. / Although Nollywood lacks Hollywood's budget, it produces more films annually. / Rwanda's progress is remarkable, albeit still uneven across rural and urban communities.
📝 Practice
Join using the correct contrast connector: (1) Stoicism is over 2,000 years old. It remains highly relevant today. (however/although?) (2) Bolivia has vast lithium reserves. It remains one of South America's poorest nations. (despite/whereas?) (3) The Shirley card was used for decades. Film corporations were aware of skin-tone limitations. (even though?)
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 135–155. | Hewings, M. (2013). Units 84–86. | CEFR: B2
25
Reason & Result Connectors
Levels 5–6 · B2▼Reason: because, since, as, due to, owing to. Result: therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, hence, so. Because introduces a subordinate clause. Therefore / Consequently begin a new sentence/clause with comma. Due to / Owing to followed by noun or gerund — not a full clause.
Because the map was designed for navigation, it was not intended to show proportional size. / The South Korean government invested in broadband; consequently, the esports industry rapidly expanded. / Due to corporate seed patents, many farmers can no longer replant their own crops.
📝 Practice
Connect the ideas using reason or result connectors: (1) Film was calibrated for light skin. Darker skin appeared as shadows. (therefore?) (2) Bolivia has the world's largest lithium reserves. International corporations put enormous pressure on the country. (as a result?) (3) The algorithm studies your emotional responses. It can predict when you are about to quit the game. (because/since?)
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 107–112. | Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 85. | CEFR: B1–B2
26
Participle Clauses — Present (-ing)
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Present participle clauses replace full subordinate clauses for concision and formality. Can express simultaneous action or reason. Critical rule: the subject of the participle clause must match the main clause subject. ❌ Dangling participle: Flying over mountains, the hospital received the medicine. (the hospital wasn't flying) ✅ Flying over mountains, the drone delivered the medicine.
Lacking multi-million dollar budgets, Nollywood filmmakers used cheap video cameras. (Because they lacked...) / Bypassing traditional distribution systems, they sold films directly in local markets.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using present participle clauses: (1) Because she wanted to show real African stories, the filmmaker used local actors. (2) Because it lacked a large army, Costa Rica invested in education instead. (3) Identify and correct the dangling participle: "Studying Ubuntu philosophy, the concept of community began to make sense to the class."
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 37–38. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 409–410. | CEFR: B2
27
Participle Clauses — Past (-ed)
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Past participle clauses have a passive meaning — they replace passive subordinate clauses. Common in academic, journalistic, and formal writing to add efficient descriptive information.
Founded by Nigerian filmmakers in the 1990s, Nollywood grew into a global film industry. (= Nollywood, which was founded by...) / Calibrated only for light skin tones, early colour film failed to capture diverse communities. / Domesticated by indigenous peoples over centuries, maize became a highly adaptable crop.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using past participle clauses: (1) KeSPA was founded in 2000. It became the world's first official esports governing body. (2) The manuscripts were discovered in Chinguetti. They date back to the medieval period. (3) Nollywood was built without Western funding. It now competes with Hollywood in global volume.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 37–38. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 408–410. | CEFR: B2
28
Question Tags — Isn't it? / Don't they?
Levels 5–6 · B1▼Positive statement → negative tag. Negative statement → positive tag. The tag repeats the auxiliary from the main clause. Intonation matters: falling intonation = expecting agreement; rising intonation = genuine question.
Rwanda has banned plastic bags, hasn't it? / The Mercator map doesn't show accurate sizes, does it? / The Columbian Exchange began in 1492, didn't it?
📝 Practice
Add the correct question tag: (1) Ubuntu prioritises community over individual achievement, ________? (2) The Mercator projection was designed for navigation, ________? (3) Corporations can't patent the air we breathe, ________? (4) We should always verify the sources of information we receive, ________?
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 43. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 467–471. | CEFR: B1
29
Causative Have/Get — Have/Get Something Done
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Structure:
have/get + object + past participle. Expresses that the subject arranged for someone else to perform an action. Have = more formal; Get = more informal. Can also express an unwanted event that happened to the subject: She had her data stolen.The government had the drone network built by a technology startup. / The farmer got her heritage seeds tested by an independent laboratory. / Have you ever had your personal data harvested without your knowledge? (unwanted event)
📝 Practice
Rewrite using the causative: (1) A technology company built Rwanda's drone delivery network for the government. → The government ________. (2) An independent laboratory tested the farmer's heritage seeds. → The farmer ________. (3) Someone stole her online identity through a gaming platform. → She ________.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 44. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 226–227. | CEFR: B2
30
Wish and If Only — Expressing Regret and Desire
Levels 6–7 · B2▼Present/future wishes: wish/if only + Past Simple. Past regrets: wish/if only + Past Perfect. Ongoing irritation: wish/if only + would. Use were (formal) instead of was for all subjects after wish in hypothetical clauses.
I wish the global food system were built on seed sovereignty, not corporate monopoly. (present) / If only school curricula had taught us the truth about map projections earlier. (past regret) / I wish corporations would stop treating our data as a product to be sold. (ongoing irritation)
📝 Practice
Write wish/if only sentences: (1) Fact: I don't speak Swahili. → I wish ________. (2) Past regret: The world didn't adopt the Peters projection earlier. → If only ________. (3) Irritation: Corporations keep using biased AI datasets. → I wish corporations ________.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Units 38–40. | Hewings, M. (2013). Units 36–37. | CEFR: B2
🟣 Tier 3 — Mastery
Levels 8–10 · Advanced academic and analytical structures · CEFR C1–C2
1
Third Conditional — Unreal Past Situations
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Structure:
If + Past Perfect, would have + past participle. Both clauses refer to the past. Describes situations that did not happen and imagines a different outcome. Essential for historical counterfactuals and ethical arguments. Other modals: could have, might have, should have.If societies had adopted the Peters projection earlier, generations would have developed a more accurate global perspective. / If film corporations had calibrated for diverse skin tones, this systemic bias might not have developed.
📝 Practice
Write Third Conditional sentences based on these historical counterfactuals: (1) Bolivia did not protect its lithium before foreign corporations arrived. (What might have happened?) (2) South Korea invested in broadband in 1997. (What would have happened without that investment?) (3) Write your own Third Conditional about an event from the curriculum you wish had gone differently.
Source: Murphy, R. (2019). Unit 39. | Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 35. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 248–253. | CEFR: C1
2
Mixed Conditionals — Past Cause, Present Result
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Most common:
If + Past Perfect, would + base verb = past condition, present result. Answers how a past choice would alter the present reality. Less common: If + Past Simple, would have + past participle = present condition, past result.If colonists had not destroyed indigenous farming systems, global food sovereignty would be far stronger today. / If the Mercator map had not been adopted globally, students would not see Africa as smaller than it is.
📝 Practice
Write mixed conditional sentences: (1) The algorithm was designed with a racial bias. (Present result: facial recognition still fails.) (2) Colonists extracted Bolivia's resources for centuries. (Present result: Bolivia still struggles economically.) (3) Nollywood built its industry independently. (Present result: African stories are now told on their own terms.) (4) Write your own mixed conditional about a historical event and its present consequence.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 35. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 248–253. | CEFR: C1
3
Inverted Conditionals (Had I known / Were it not for / Should you need)
Levels 9–10 · C1▼If omitted — auxiliary inverted to front, creating a formal, elevated register. Three types: (1)
Had + subject + past participle (3rd conditional inversion). (2) Were + subject + to + infinitive (2nd conditional inversion). (3) Should + subject + base verb (1st conditional inversion, formal).Had societies anticipated this corporate data harvesting, they would have implemented strict regulations. / Were it not for the community's seed-saving traditions, these varieties would now be extinct. / Should the corporation refuse to comply, the court will enforce the Law of Mother Earth.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using inverted conditional form: (1) If I had studied the Mercator distortion earlier, I would have challenged it long ago. (Had...) (2) If it were not for the resilience of indigenous farmers, these seed varieties would be lost. (Were it not for...) (3) If you should need more information about seed sovereignty, please visit the FAO website. (Should...) (4) If Bolivia were to export all of its lithium unprocessed, it would receive a fraction of the potential profit. (Were Bolivia to...)
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 36. | Quirk et al. (1985). §15.22. | CEFR: C1–C2
4
Subjunctive Mood — Wishes, Demands & Formal Requirements
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Present Subjunctive uses the base form (no -s for third person) after verbs of demand, recommendation, and requirement: require, recommend, suggest, insist, demand, propose, request. The law requires that all data collection be disclosed. (not: is). Past Subjunctive: were for all subjects in hypothetical clauses. British English alternative: should + infinitive.
The UN requires that every nation be accountable for its data privacy laws. / The committee recommended that the algorithm be retrained on a diverse dataset. / It is essential that critical literacy be taught in schools from an early age.
📝 Practice
Insert the correct subjunctive form: (1) The law demands that every corporation ________ (disclose) its data collection practices. (2) It is vital that facial recognition software ________ (be retrained) on diverse datasets. (3) The Stoic philosopher insisted that her students ________ (examine) every assumption critically. (4) The government recommended that the seed patent system ________ (undergo) urgent review.
Source: Huddleston & Pullum (2002). Chapter 11. | Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 35. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 536–540. | CEFR: C1
5
Subjunctive Mood — Lest & For Fear That
Levels 9–10 · C2▼Lest is a formal conjunction meaning "in order to prevent the possibility that." Followed by the subjunctive base form or should + base verb. More common in formal, academic, legal, and literary writing. For fear that is a slightly less archaic alternative, followed by should/would.Lest we forget the historical origins of the spice trade, we must study it alongside the violence that accompanied it. / Governments must act now, lest surveillance capitalism become completely unregulated. / The archivist handled the manuscripts with care, for fear that they might be permanently ruined.
📝 Practice
Write sentences using lest or for fear that: (1) We must teach seed sovereignty now, ________ the knowledge ________ (be lost) forever. (2) The government must legislate quickly, ________ corporations ________ (gain) complete control of all digital data. (3) Students must learn to question their maps, ________ they ________ (continue) to misunderstand global power. (4) Rewrite using for fear that: Farmers saved their seeds secretly, lest the corporation discover and destroy them.
Source: Quirk et al. (1985). §15.22. | Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 89. | Huddleston & Pullum (2002). Chapter 14. | CEFR: C1–C2
6
Negative Inversion (Not only... but also / Never have I...)
Levels 9–10 · C1▼A negative or restrictive adverbial at the start forces subject-auxiliary inversion, adding dramatic emphasis and rhetorical weight. Common triggers: Never, Rarely, Seldom, Not only, Not until, Hardly, Scarcely, Under no circumstances, Only then, Only when. Structure:
Negative adverbial + auxiliary + subject + main verb.Not only does the Mercator map distort the size of Africa, but it also shapes our subconscious perception of global power. / Never have indigenous farmers been given the opportunity to patent their own seed varieties. / Rarely does global media cover African innovation with the same enthusiasm as Western breakthroughs.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using negative inversion: (1) The concerns of darker-skinned communities were not only ignored but actively dismissed. (Not only...) (2) Corporate seed patents have never allowed farmers to replant freely. (Never have...) (3) The global media rarely acknowledges African innovation without framing it through a Western lens. (Rarely does...) (4) Under no circumstances should corporations be permitted to own the genetic code of essential crops. (Under no circumstances...)
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 89–90. | Quirk et al. (1985). §18.24. | CEFR: C1–C2
7
Cleft Sentences (It was X that... / What I need is...)
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Two types: (1) It-cleft:
It is/was + emphasised element + that/who + rest of sentence. (2) Wh-cleft (pseudo-cleft): What + clause + is/was + emphasised element. Both divide a sentence into two clauses to place extreme rhetorical focus on one specific piece of information. Widely used in academic writing, debate, and journalism.It was the Shirley card that established racial bias in photography. / What the global food system needs is seed sovereignty, not corporate patents. / It is not technology itself that causes bias — it is the assumptions of the people who build it.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using cleft sentences for emphasis: (1) The Mercator projection distorted our view of Africa — not the actual size of the continent. (It is/was...) (2) Nollywood's independent distribution model made it successful — not its budget. (What made Nollywood...) (3) Governments need to regulate algorithms — not just individual privacy settings. (What governments need...) (4) Corporate patents, not natural scarcity, caused the seed crisis. (It is...)
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 91–92. | Quirk et al. (1985). §18.25–18.29. | CEFR: C1
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Nominalization — Turning Verbs into Nouns
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Converting verbs or adjectives into abstract nouns creates a denser, more formal academic register. Common suffixes: -tion/-sion, -ment, -ance/-ence, -ity, -ism/-ist, -ing. Transforms active, personal sentences into objective, analytical statements. Important: balance with clarity — overuse can make writing unnecessarily obscure.
Informal: "They extracted minerals and this destroyed communities." → Formal: "The extraction of minerals led to the destruction of local communities." / colonise→colonisation / govern→governance / represent→representation / exclude→exclusion
📝 Practice
Nominalize the underlined verb and rewrite formally: (1) Corporations exploit indigenous communities. → The ________ of indigenous communities... (2) Governments intervene to protect seed diversity. → Government ________ in seed protection... (3) The media represents Africa inaccurately. → The ________ of Africa in global media... (4) Write an academic sentence about the curriculum using at least two nominalizations.
Source: Swales, J. & Feak, C. (2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students (3rd ed.), Chapter 4. University of Michigan Press. | CEFR: C1
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Advanced Passive Voice — Get / Have Passive / Passive Infinitives
Levels 8–9 · C1▼(1) Get passive (informal, often unwanted events): The data got leaked. (2) Passive infinitive: The seeds are expected to be patented. (3) Passive gerund: Being misrepresented on a map affects how communities perceive themselves. (4) Double object passive: Communities were denied access to their ancestral seeds.
Many young gamers have their behavioural patterns commodified by predictive algorithms. / The curriculum is expected to be decolonised by the next academic year. / Being calibrated for only one skin tone was a significant flaw in early photography.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using the advanced passive structure indicated: (1) Hackers stole her digital identity through the gaming platform. → She got ________. (2) Researchers expect corporations to retrain the facial recognition algorithm. → The algorithm is expected ________. (3) The court denied indigenous communities any legal right to their seeds. → Indigenous communities were ________. (4) Write a sentence about digital privacy using the get passive.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 29–32. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 411–425. | CEFR: C1
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Advanced Reporting Verbs — argue / claim / suggest / imply / acknowledge
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Advanced reporting verbs carry stance — they signal the writer's attitude toward what is reported. The choice of verb shapes the reader's perception of the source's credibility. argues = confident position / claims = speaker is sceptical / suggests = softer, evidence-based / acknowledged = admission. A critical academic and media literacy skill.
Critical linguists argue that the passive voice is strategically used to erase state responsibility. / The corporation claims that its algorithm is unbiased. (speaker is sceptical) / The government acknowledged that seed patents had damaged local farming communities. (admission)
📝 Practice
Choose the most appropriate reporting verb and justify: (1) The corporation said it was not responsible for the bias. (claims / acknowledges / argues?) (2) The philosopher said Ubuntu offers a better social model. (suggests / contends / denies?) (3) Rewrite: "Experts say global seed biodiversity is decreasing rapidly." — Use three different reporting verbs and explain how each changes the meaning.
Source: Swales & Feak (2012). Chapter 3. | Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 47. | CEFR: C1
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Hedging Language — Softening Academic Claims
Levels 8–10 · C1▼Hedging expresses caution without signalling weakness — it is a mark of intellectual rigour. Devices: modals (may, might, could), hedging verbs (seem, appear, tend to, suggest), adverbs (arguably, apparently, possibly, largely), adjectives (possible, probable, likely), phrases (there is evidence to suggest, to a certain extent, in many cases).
Overstatement: "The Mercator map makes everyone racist." → Hedged: "The Mercator projection may contribute to subconscious geographical biases." / Overstatement: "AI will replace all human jobs." → Hedged: "AI seems likely to significantly disrupt many sectors of employment."
📝 Practice
Add hedging language to soften these overstatements. Then identify which hedging device you used: (1) "Corporate seed patents are destroying global food sovereignty." (2) "The Shirley card was deliberately racist." (3) "All Western maps are designed to make Europe look powerful." (4) "Social media is making young people less capable of critical thinking."
Source: Swales & Feak (2012). Chapter 5. | Hyland, K. (1998). Hedging in Scientific Research Articles. John Benjamins. | CEFR: C1–C2
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Discourse Markers — Structuring Complex Arguments
Levels 8–10 · C1▼Discourse markers organise the macro-level flow of an argument. Introducing: To begin with, First and foremost, It is worth noting that. Adding: Furthermore, Moreover, In addition, What is more. Contrasting: Nevertheless, On the contrary, That said, Be that as it may. Concluding: Ultimately, In sum, All things considered. Exemplifying: To illustrate, A case in point is, This is exemplified by.
It is worth noting that the Mercator map was not designed to mislead — that said, its impact on global perception has been profound. Furthermore, its continued use in schools reinforces these distortions. Ultimately, what is required is a complete re-evaluation of the maps we teach.
📝 Practice
Write a structured argument of 4–6 sentences about seed sovereignty using at least four different discourse markers. Your argument must: (1) introduce the issue, (2) add supporting evidence, (3) acknowledge a counterargument, and (4) reach a conclusion. Identify each discourse marker and label its function.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 84–86. | Swales & Feak (2012). | CEFR: C1–C2
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Logical Connectors — Advanced Academic Register
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Advanced connectors operate at a higher level of formality than basic ones like but/so/because. Consequence: consequently, thus, thereby, hence. Concession: nonetheless, nevertheless, albeit, notwithstanding. Addition: furthermore, moreover, what is more. Condition: provided that, given that, assuming that. Purpose: with a view to, with the aim of, so as to.
Corporate patents have spread globally; consequently, indigenous farmers have lost control of their agricultural heritage. / Notwithstanding the legal challenges, Bolivia has maintained its commitment to the Law of Mother Earth. / Given that surveillance capitalism is deeply embedded in the digital economy, individual privacy settings are insufficient protection.
📝 Practice
Replace the basic connector with an advanced equivalent: (1) The algorithm was biased, so facial recognition failed for darker skin tones. (consequently/thereby?) (2) Even though corporations deny it, the evidence of algorithmic bias is overwhelming. (notwithstanding/albeit?) (3) Nollywood lacked budgets, but it still built a global industry. (nonetheless/nevertheless?) (4) Write three sentences about the curriculum using three different advanced logical connectors.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 85. | Swales & Feak (2012). | CEFR: C1
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Adverbial Clauses of Concession (even though / while / albeit / much as)
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Acknowledge an opposing point before asserting the main argument. although / even though / though (most common), while / whilst (formal), albeit (followed by adjective/participle/noun phrase — not a full clause: a significant step, albeit an incomplete one), much as (formal, often emotional: Much as I appreciate the Stoic approach...), even if (conditional concession).
Even though Bolivia's constitution protects the environment, enforcement remains deeply challenging. / Rwanda's progress is remarkable, albeit still uneven across rural and urban communities. / Much as Stoicism offers powerful tools for resilience, it must not become a justification for passive acceptance of injustice.
📝 Practice
Write concessive sentences using the indicated connector: (1) (Even though) — Bolivia has lithium. The country remains economically vulnerable. (2) (Albeit) — Nollywood has grown rapidly. It still faces distribution challenges. (3) (Much as) — Ubuntu offers a valuable philosophy. It may be difficult to implement in competitive modern economies. (4) (Even if) — Corporations retrain their AI on diverse datasets. The structural bias will take years to fully address.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Units 84–86. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 135–155. | CEFR: C1
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Adverbial Clauses of Purpose (so that / in order to / lest / with a view to)
Levels 8–9 · C1▼in order to / so as to + base verb (formal purpose). so that / in order that + clause with modal (purpose with subject change). with a view to / with the aim of + gerund (formal). lest + subjunctive (negative purpose — to prevent something bad).
Farmers established seed banks with a view to preserving agricultural biodiversity for future generations. / Rwanda invested in drone technology so that remote communities could receive medical supplies rapidly. / The data was encrypted lest it fall into the hands of corporate surveillance systems.
📝 Practice
Rewrite using the indicated purpose structure: (1) (in order to) — Bolivia nationalised lithium processing. They wanted to keep profits domestic. (2) (so that) — The government passed the Law of Mother Earth. Future generations will inherit a healthy environment. (3) (with a view to) — Nollywood filmmakers used cheap cameras. They wanted to maintain creative independence. (4) (lest) — Communities preserved oral traditions carefully. They didn't want them to disappear.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 88. | Swan, M. (2016). Sections 418–420. | CEFR: C1
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Syntactic Parsing — Identifying Clause Structure
Levels 9–10 · C2▼The analysis of a sentence's grammatical structure — identifying the main clause, subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and participle clauses. Essential for reading complex academic texts and for media analysis — identifying passive constructions, embedded clauses, and hedging in news headlines reveals whose interests the language is serving.
Parse: "Although Bolivia, which holds the world's largest lithium reserves, has asserted its sovereignty, corporations that seek to control the market continue to apply pressure." → Main clause: corporations continue to apply pressure. Concessive clause: Although Bolivia has asserted its sovereignty. Non-defining relative: which holds the world's largest lithium reserves. Defining relative: that seek to control the market.
📝 Practice
Parse these sentences — identify main clause, subordinate clause type, relative clause, participle clause: (1) "Nestled in Central-East Africa, Rwanda is a landlocked nation that has completely reimagined its infrastructure." (2) "Not only does the Mercator map distort the size of Africa, but it also shapes our perception of global power." (3) "What Stoicism teaches us is not suppression of emotion, but rather a precise understanding of what lies within our control."
Source: Quirk et al. (1985). Chapters 7–10. | Huddleston & Pullum (2002). Chapters 1–4. | CEFR: C2
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Fronting & Topicalization — Emphasis Through Word Order
Levels 9–10 · C2▼Moving a component that normally appears after the verb to the beginning of the sentence creates emphasis or aligns with the paragraph's topic. Unlike negative inversion, fronting does not require subject-auxiliary inversion. Used in formal and literary writing for stylistic effect.
Standard: The collective relationships of the community sit at the centre of Ubuntu. → Fronted: At the centre of Ubuntu philosophy sit the collective relationships of the community. / Standard: This massive film revolution was built on cheap video cassettes. → Fronted: On cheap video cassettes was this massive digital film revolution originally built.
📝 Practice
Apply fronting to emphasise the indicated element: (1) The pristine Andean ecosystems lie beyond these lithium salt flats. (Front the adverbial phrase.) (2) Such extreme physical agility does the game of Sepak Takraw demand from its athletes. (This is already fronted — rewrite in standard order, then explain the difference in emphasis.) (3) Write your own fronted sentence about the curriculum.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 100. | Quirk et al. (1985). §18.24. | CEFR: C2
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Ellipsis & Substitution — Avoiding Repetition
Levels 9–10 · C1▼Ellipsis = deliberately omitting grammatical elements obvious from context. Substitution = replacing a repeated phrase with a pro-form (do so, one, does). Both improve flow and avoid repetition in connected writing.
The first news agency used the active voice, and the second did so too. (substitution for "used the active voice") / While some systems extract user data, others ∅ are built to protect it. (ellipsis of "systems") / One camera sensor captured the details beautifully, but the other one failed. (substitution)
📝 Practice
Use ellipsis or substitution to streamline these sentences: (1) The German speakers described the key as heavy, and the Spanish speakers described the key as delicate. (2) The first group researched the Mercator projection, and the second group researched the Gall-Peters projection. (3) Identify the cohesion devices in this sentence: "Agrochemical corporations seek to patent seeds. They claim this protects research, but family farmers argue it does not."
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 274–277. | CEFR: C1
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Cohesion Devices — Reference, Substitution, Ellipsis
Levels 9–10 · C1▼Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking that holds a text together. Reference: using pronouns or demonstratives to point back to previous nouns (When the Dutch arrived, they sought a monopoly). Substitution: replacing a phrase with a pro-form (do so / one). Ellipsis: omitting redundant words (The first group studied the Mercator projection, and the second ∅ the Gall-Peters). Mastery of cohesion distinguishes sophisticated academic writers from competent ones.
Reference: When the Dutch arrived in the Banda Islands, they sought a monopoly on nutmeg. / Substitution: Many countries wish to establish a green transit network; Bolivia was the first to do so. / Ellipsis: The first group researched the Mercator projection, and the second ∅ the Gall-Peters.
📝 Practice
Identify and label the cohesion devices (reference / substitution / ellipsis) in this paragraph: "Agrochemical corporations seek to patent seeds. They claim this protects research, but family farmers argue it does not. While some corporations acknowledge the problem, others refuse to do so." Then write your own cohesive paragraph of 3–4 sentences about digital sovereignty using at least two different cohesion devices.
Source: Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. Longman. | CEFR: C1
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Academic Register — Formal vs. Informal Language
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Academic register replaces phrasal verbs, idioms, and casual contractions with precise, authoritative vocabulary. Avoid contractions, first-person overuse, vague quantifiers (a lot of → a significant number of), and emotional language. Common replacements: look into → investigate / get better → improve / find out → determine / make up → constitute / put up with → tolerate / go up → increase.
Informal: "Lots of researchers are trying to find out why the camera doesn't work well on dark skin." → Formal: "A significant body of researchers seeks to determine why camera sensors fail to accurately capture darker skin tones."
📝 Practice
Rewrite in formal academic register: (1) "Many countries are trying to get better at dealing with climate change." (2) "The corporation basically made up new rules to get around the law." (3) "A lot of people think that AI is going to take over everyone's jobs." (4) "The government has to put up with pressure from big companies." (5) Write one sentence of your own in informal English, then rewrite it in academic register.
Source: Swales & Feak (2012). Chapter 1. | CEFR: C1
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Parallel Structures — Grammatical Balance in Sentences
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Coordinate elements in a series must use identical grammatical forms. ❌ The course teaches students geographic coordinates, how to analyse flag colours, and to debate issues. ✅ The course teaches students to read coordinates, to analyse flag colours, and to debate issues. Applies to noun lists, infinitive lists, parallel passive structures, and compound predicates.
✅ These algorithms are designed to track user clicks, predict future behaviour, and encourage compulsive spending. (parallel infinitives) / ✅ Nollywood films are written by Nigerians, directed by Nigerians, and distributed by Nigerians. (parallel passive structures)
📝 Practice
Correct the grammatical imbalance: (1) "The curriculum prioritises local self-representation, developing digital security skills, and to think critically." (2) "The farmer decided to resist the corporate pressure, saving her seeds, and she also organised her community." (3) Write your own parallel sentence about what the platform teaches students, using three parallel infinitives.
Source: Quirk et al. (1985). Chapter 13. | CEFR: C1
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Apposition — Noun Phrases in Explanation
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Apposition occurs when two noun phrases are placed side-by-side where the second defines, identifies, or clarifies the first. Creates concise, elegant formal writing. Structure:
Noun Phrase 1 + , [Noun Phrase 2 (Appositive)] + , [Main Verb]. Can be defining (no commas) or non-defining (with commas).Nollywood, the second-largest film industry in the world by volume, began on cheap video cassettes. / The Richat Structure, a massive circular geological wonder in Mauritania, is visible from outer space. / Epictetus, a former enslaved person and Stoic philosopher, developed the Dichotomy of Control.
📝 Practice
Combine these sentences using apposition: (1) Kabaddi is an ancient contact sport from South Asia. It requires immense core strength and lung capacity. (2) KeSPA was founded in 2000. It was the world's first official esports governing body. (3) Ubuntu is a Southern African philosophy. It holds that our humanity is defined by our relationships with others. (4) Write your own sentence using apposition about any person, place, or concept from the curriculum.
Source: Huddleston & Pullum (2002). Chapter 5. | CEFR: C1
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Abstract Nouns and Concepts in Academic Writing
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Replacing concrete actors and events with abstract nouns allows discussion of general patterns and systemic relationships rather than personal anecdotes. Essential for academic essays and formal reports. Abstract nouns name concepts, qualities, and processes: sovereignty, commodification, hegemony, exploitation, stewardship, resilience, biodiversity.
Concrete: "Farmers save seeds to protect the variety of crops." → Abstract: "Seed stewardship is essential to the preservation of agricultural biodiversity." / Concrete: "Companies make money by tracking what we do online." → Abstract: "The commercialisation of digital behaviour constitutes a significant threat to cognitive sovereignty."
📝 Practice
Rewrite in academic register using abstract nouns: (1) "If big companies own the water, they will make poor people pay too much money to drink." (2) "When corporations take control of seeds, farmers can't grow what they want." (3) "People are getting more and more dependent on technology and they can't think for themselves." (4) Write one academic sentence about the curriculum using at least three abstract nouns.
Source: Swales & Feak (2012). Chapter 3. | CEFR: C1
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Complex Relative Structures (preposition + whom / which)
Levels 9–10 · C2▼In highly formal academic writing, relative pronouns following prepositions are kept next to their prepositions (pied-piping). Use which for things, whom for people. Informal English places the preposition at the end: the corporation that the law was aimed at. Formal academic English uses pied-piping: the corporation at which the law was aimed.
The agrochemical corporations, under whose control the global seed supply remains, enforce strict patent laws. / These ancient libraries preserve hand-bound manuscripts, many of which date back to the medieval era. / The indigenous farmers, by whom these resilient seed varieties were cultivated, are fighting for food sovereignty.
📝 Practice
Combine using preposition + whom/which: (1) The research team interviewed five local filmmakers. Two of these filmmakers had started in Nollywood. (2) The corporations own the patents. The farmers are entirely dependent on these corporations. (3) Bolivia has vast lithium reserves. International corporations are competing fiercely for access to these reserves. (4) Rewrite in formal style: "The community that we spoke to has been farming these seeds for generations."
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 71. | CEFR: C2
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Compound-Complex Sentences — Building Sophistication
Levels 9–10 · C1▼Combines at least two independent clauses (compound) and at least one dependent clause (complex) in one sentence. Structure:
[Independent Clause 1] + [Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent Clause] + and/but + [Independent Clause 2]. Requires careful punctuation and coherent logical flow — the mark of a sophisticated academic writer.While free-to-play games democratize digital access, they often introduce predatory monetization strategies, and this systemic practice directly threatens the cognitive sovereignty of young players. / Because early colour film was calibrated using the "Shirley card," it failed to capture dark skin tones accurately, and this technical limitation was ignored by manufacturers for decades.
📝 Practice
Combine these three ideas into a single compound-complex sentence: (1) The government passed the Law of the Rights of Mother Earth. / This law protects the river from industrial pollution. / However, the country still needs to mine lithium to grow its economy. (2) Nollywood lacked Hollywood budgets. / Nigerian filmmakers found creative ways around this limitation. / They built the second-largest film industry in the world. (3) Write your own compound-complex sentence about digital sovereignty.
Source: Huddleston & Pullum (2002). Chapter 2. | CEFR: C1
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Modal Perfect — Should have / Could have / Might have
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Structure:
should/could/might/must + have + past participle. Used for: past situations that were possible but did not occur, unfulfilled past obligations, and logical certainties about past events. Each modal carries a distinct nuance: should have = obligation unfulfilled / could have = past possibility not realised / might have = uncertain past possibility / must have = confident logical deduction about the past.The regulatory bodies should have protected the public from corporate data extraction. (obligation unfulfilled) / With better software design, engineers could have calibrated the sensors correctly. (past possibility not realised) / The ancient scribes might have stored manuscripts in other desert locations. (uncertain past possibility)
📝 Practice
Complete using should have / could have / might have / must have: (1) The team lost the Kabaddi match; they ________ (practise) their defensive coordination more before the game. (obligation unfulfilled) (2) If Nollywood had received Hollywood budgets in the 1990s, the African film industry ________ (develop) even faster. (past possibility not realised) (3) The ancient manuscripts ________ (contain) information about astronomy that we have not yet translated. (uncertain past possibility)
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Section 105. | Murphy, R. (2019). Units 28–30. | CEFR: C1
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Stance Adverbs (arguably / admittedly / evidently)
Levels 8–9 · C1▼Introductory adverbs that establish the writer's attitude, perspective, or degree of certainty toward the truth of the statement that follows. Arguably = open to debate, but the writer leans toward it. Admittedly = conceding a point while maintaining overall argument. Evidently/Clearly = apparent from evidence. Undeniably = cannot be disputed. Ostensibly = on the surface, but implying doubt beneath.
Arguably, the passive voice is weaponized in news headlines to shield political allies from ethical scrutiny. / Admittedly, balancing national economic progress with complete ecological preservation is highly difficult. / Evidently, modern biometric surveillance databases carry systemic biases that disproportionately impact darker-skinned citizens.
📝 Practice
Insert the correct stance adverb and justify your choice: (1) ________, the drone network is expensive to maintain, but it has saved thousands of rural lives. (need to concede a point) (2) ________, the use of the passive voice in that headline was a deliberate rhetorical choice. (apparent from context) (3) ________, Stoicism could be criticised for encouraging passive acceptance of injustice. (writer leans toward this but it is debatable) (4) ________, the corporation was aware of the bias long before the public discovery. (implying something beneath the surface)
Source: Huddleston & Pullum (2002). Chapter 8. | Swales & Feak (2012). | CEFR: C1
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Comparative Structures in Academic Writing
Levels 9–10 · C1▼Proportional comparatives show a direct relationship between two variables:
The + comparative + clause, the + comparative + clause. This structure is used in academic writing to argue causation or correlation without overstating certainty. Also includes formal comparison structures: In contrast to... / As opposed to... / Far from... / A far cry from...The more data a corporation harvests, the more accurately its algorithms can predict user behaviour. / The darker a person's skin tone is, the more likely a poorly calibrated facial sensor is to misidentify them. / In contrast to Western individualism, Ubuntu places collective interdependence at the centre of human identity.
📝 Practice
Write proportional comparative sentences: (1) As a game publisher increases monetization tricks, the cognitive sovereignty of players decreases. (The more... the less...) (2) As a country invests more in broadband infrastructure, its digital economy grows. (The more...) (3) As a community saves more heritage seeds, it becomes more resilient to agricultural monopolies. (4) Write your own proportional comparative about any relationship described in the curriculum.
Source: Hewings, M. (2013). Unit 77. | CEFR: C1
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Punctuation for Advanced Writers (colons / semicolons / em-dashes)
Levels 9–10 · C1▼Semicolons connect closely related independent clauses — the relationship between them should be obvious without a conjunction. Colons introduce explanations, details, or lists after a complete clause. Em-dashes insert sudden rhetorical shifts, nested explanations, or dramatic pauses. Each punctuation mark signals a distinct logical relationship and should not be used interchangeably.
Peasant movements are establishing seed banks; consequently, they are successfully preserving native crop diversity. (semicolon) / The country faces a profound tension: balancing lithium mining with constitutional earth rights. (colon introducing explanation) / Nollywood films—produced quickly on tiny budgets—have revolutionized global film distribution. (em-dashes for parenthetical)
📝 Practice
Insert the correct punctuation mark (semicolon, colon, or em-dash) and explain your choice: (1) The camera failed to capture her face properly __ the chemistry of the film was calibrated only for light skin. (2) Bolivia faces a critical choice __ nationalise lithium processing or continue selling unprocessed ore at a fraction of its value. (3) Epictetus __ a former enslaved person who became one of the most influential Stoic philosophers __ taught that freedom begins in the mind. (4) Write one sentence about the curriculum using each of the three advanced punctuation marks.
Source: Swan, M. (2016). Sections 279–283. | CEFR: C1
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Cohesive Paragraph Writing — From Sentence to Argument
Levels 9–10 · C2▼Advanced paragraph structure: Topic Sentence (the thesis) → Supporting Evidence (specific, sourced) → Counterargument / Nuance (acknowledge complexity) → Synthesising Conclusion (tie back to topic sentence). Each sentence must connect logically to the next using cohesion devices. The paragraph should be a self-contained unit of argument that could stand alone.
Individualism has long been framed as the natural driver of human progress by Western economists. However, Southern African philosophies like Ubuntu challenge this competitive paradigm by prioritising absolute interdependence. While critics claim collectivism compromises personal ambition, Ubuntu actually fosters a secure self-assurance that comes from belonging to a supportive whole. Therefore, transitioning toward community-centric philosophies is essential to building cooperative social systems.
📝 Practice
Analyse the cohesive flow of the model paragraph above: (1) Which sentence is the Topic Sentence? (2) Which sentence provides Supporting Evidence? (3) Which sentence introduces the Counterargument? (4) Which sentence is the Synthesising Conclusion? Then write your own cohesive academic paragraph (4–5 sentences) on one of these topics: seed sovereignty / surveillance capitalism / the Mercator projection / Ubuntu in modern workplaces. Apply the full four-stage structure and use at least three different cohesion devices.
Source: Swales & Feak (2012). Chapter 1. | Halliday & Hasan (1976). | CEFR: C2